Seabed stakes – What to know as Nova Scotia prepares to launch offshore wind
By Dave Randell and James Gamblin
The offshore areas of Nova Scotia offer some of the most competitive untapped offshore wind resources in the world.[1] Nova Scotia policy makers have viewed the pursuit of offshore wind energy generation as a pillar of the province’s effort to transition to clean energy and as a major economic development opportunity. In 2022, the province committed to offering seabed leases for offshore wind projects, totaling five gigawatts, by 2030.[2] There have been a number of significant developments specific to offshore wind since the target was set in 2022 at the provincial and federal levels, including the following:
- Nova Scotia published a series of “Modules” comprising its Offshore Wind Roadmap examining requirements for a regulatory regime and supply chain considerations.[3]
- The provincial and federal governments each passed legislation to reform the former Canada-Nova Scotia Offshore Petroleum Board to broaden its mandate and establish it as the regulator for wind development in the Nova Scotia offshore.[4]
- The commissioning of a regional impact assessment by the federal and provincial government under the Impact Assessment Act (the “Regional Assessment“),[5] culminating in the January 2025 publication of the final report of the independent committee appointed for the Regional Assessment (the “RA Report“).
- The designation of four areas for future offshore wind development, selected from a broader group of potential development areas examined in the RA Report. These four areas are expected to be subject to calls for bids issued before the end of 2025 in respect of seabed licences for offshore wind development totalling 2.5 GW.
The regulatory regime for offshore wind is being built upon a well-established framework used for offshore petroleum development, but the fact remains that offshore wind represents a nascent industry for Nova Scotia. With an initial call for bids expected for offshore wind licensing in Nova Scotia before the end of 2025, there remain a number of unknowns relating to the bidding process and the terms and conditions relating to same, including application criteria, licence terms and conditions, incentives, and licence fees/deposits. Additionally, key regulations have not been published (although these are expected to mirror existing federal regulations applicable in the rest of Canada).[6] Possible bidders are anxious for clarity.
So, what is known now? There is significant existing information concerning the new regulatory regime and licensing processes which can be gleaned from legislative amendments at the federal and provincial level, the creation of a reformed offshore energy regulator, the RA Report, and the identification of four designated development areas. This article will (a) examine known aspects of the Nova Scotia regulatory regime and licensing process to date, including site selection and licence issuance; (b) place the emerging Nova Scotia regime in context, by examining aspects of the more mature regulatory regimes and licensing processes in certain European jurisdictions and the United States; and (c) briefly discuss some of the economics surrounding offshore wind in the region, as well as applicable subsidies and incentives being made available.
Licence Issuance, Operational Approvals, and Consents
The RA Report identified five potential development areas for offshore wind projects in Nova Scotia’s offshore areas: French Bank, Middle Bank, Sable Island Bank, Sydney Bight, and Western/Emerald Bank.[7] As noted above, the province and the federal government decided to proceed with the first four areas for the planned 2025 calls for bids and specific parcels within those four broader designated areas are expected to be identified as part of that process. The Western/Emerald Bank is not being included due to fishing and military use considerations,[8] but the provincial and federal governments have noted that after the first round of seabed licence calls for bids, the Western/Emerald Bank as well as three other areas examined in the RA Report will be revisited for potential offshore wind development.[9]
Calls for bids, the issuance of seabed licences, and the regulation of energy projects in Nova Scotia’s offshore areas will be the responsibility of the Canada-Nova Scotia Offshore Energy Regulator (the “Regulator“), which is the lifecycle regulator jointly established by the provincial and federal governments. Through the Regulator (previously the Canada-Nova Scotia Offshore Petroleum Board), energy development in Nova Scotia’s offshore areas is jointly managed by the province and the federal government in light of concurrent (or unsettled) jurisdiction over offshore areas in accordance with Canada-Nova Scotia Offshore Petroleum Resources Accord Implementation and Offshore Renewable Energy Management Act, SC 1988, c 28 and the Canada-Nova Scotia Offshore Petroleum Resources Accord Implementation and Offshore Renewable Energy Management Act SNS 1987 (the “Accord Acts“).
The Regulator is responsible for “offshore renewable energy projects”, defined in the Accord Acts as follows:
“offshore renewable energy project” means any of the following works and activities:
(a) any research or assessment conducted in relation to the exploitation or potential exploitation of a renewable resource to produce an energy product, unless it is conducted by or on behalf of a government or educational institution,
(b) any exploitation of a renewable resource to produce an energy product,
(c) any storage of an energy product produced from a renewable resource, and
(d) any transmission of an energy product produced from a renewable resource.[10]
The Accord Acts establish the framework for the issuance of submerged land licences within “crown reserve lands” to proponents of offshore renewable energy projects.[11] Notable requirements for submerged land licences include:
- Submerged land licences may be limited to particular technologies or types of renewable energy resources as defined in the issued licence.[12]
- A submerged land licence (or shares in a submerged land licence) may only be held by a corporation incorporated in Canada.[13]
- A submerged land licence will not be required for research, or assessments conducted in relation to the exploitation of a renewable resource that does not require attaching a facility or structure to the seabed.[14]
Similar to the established process for offshore petroleum projects, submerged land licences for offshore wind projects can only be issued following a call for bids process undertaken by the Regulator.[15] A submerged land licence will confer the right upon its holder to carry on an offshore renewable energy project, subject to the terms and conditions attached to said licence.[16] A call for bids issued by the Regulator, including the expected aforementioned call for bids for offshore wind, must set out, among other things:
- the specific location of the offshore to which the licence applies;
- the technologies or types of offshore renewable energy covered by the licence;
- the terms and conditions applicable to the licence;
- the terms and conditions a bid must satisfy to be considered by the Regulator; and
- the criteria the Regulator will apply in assessing submitted bids.[17]
The Regulator is mandated to provide recommendations to the applicable provincial and federal ministers with respect to any decisions to launch a call for bids or to ultimately award a submerged land licence.[18] The respective ministers must both approve a recommendation for it to be adopted and implemented. In furtherance of Nova Scotia’s stated goal of a first offshore wind call for bids to be issued in 2025, the provincial and federal governments issued a joint directive to the Regulator pursuant to the Accord Acts on March 6, 2025.[19] Among other things, the covering letter appended to the joint direction explains that the additional ministerial oversight for approvals (which is not required under the current approach for petroleum licences) is required because:
First, unlike petroleum, ORE [offshore renewable energy projects] will be more closely integrated into provincial electricity markets and infrastructure, and there was a need to connect the land-tenure process with the Government of Nova Scotia’s future priorities regarding the broader offshore wind industry and its electricity sector goals.
Second, the geographic scope of offshore wind projects is also much larger than offshore petroleum projects and therefore the possibility of interaction with other users of the sea is greater
Providing the ministers with a formal decision-making role ensures the pace of development matches Nova Scotia’s priorities and allows for governments to undertake spatial planning work on where projects could potentially be located.
Once a submerged land licence is issued, the licence holder will have the exclusive right to develop an offshore renewable energy project within the area covered by the licence but will still be required to obtain specific project authorizations before any work or activity can move forward.[20] Specifically, it is expected that, before construction can begin, a thorough site assessment will be required.[21]
Looking Abroad: Insight for Nova Scotia Processes and Development
Although Nova Scotia is approaching offshore seabed licensing in a manner similar to its pre-existing offshore petroleum regime, there may be insight into what is to come by reviewing how other jurisdictions with mature offshore wind developments, such as the United Kingdom, have previously awarded seabed licences or leases.
The United Kingdom has approximately 14 GW of commissioned offshore wind, representing significant growth in the last decade.[22] Continued rapid deployment is expected with a goal of 50 GW of commissioned offshore wind by 2030 and 77 GW from 80 projects in various stages of planning and development.[23] In England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, the Crown Estate (and the Crown Estate Scotland for Scottish waters, together the “Crown Estate”), is responsible for granting preliminary rights for offshore wind projects and, through a multi-step tendering process, eventually enters into an Agreement for Lease with the successful proponent for a specific portion of the seabed.[24]
The process involves the following steps:
- a pre-qualification questionnaire to assess the bidders’ high-level financial, technical, and legal capabilities;
- an invitation to tender (stage 1) to review the project’s financial and technical abilities;
- an invitation to tender (stage 2) which involves a multi-cycle bidding process based on option fees (the bidder will provide a preferred bidder letter and pay an option fee deposit);
- plan-level habitats assessments to assess any nature conservation impacts; and
- completion of an agreement for lease between the successful proponent and the Crown Estate (“Agreement for Lease”).[25]
An Agreement for Lease, like a submerged land licence in the Nova Scotia context, is a key milestone for project proponents, granting exclusivity to the proponent subject to certain terms and conditions. Similar to the Nova Scotia context, a proponent that has entered into an Agreement for Lease must still obtain all other statutory permits and consents before construction can begin. While it appears that the Crown Estate can enter into an Agreement for Lease with a developer without ministerial approval, additional government approvals, permits, and consents are required before construction can begin. Before a full leasehold interest is established, proponents pay option fees to the Crown Estate to maintain exclusive rights. Option fees account for significant revenue for the Crown Estate; those received annually from its last (Round 4) tendering process for 8 GW of offshore wind across six projects were valued at approximately 1 billion pounds per year payable by applicable developers for terms of between three and ten years.[26]
The United States has significantly less installed capacity than European countries with less than 1 GW of installed capacity currently online.[27] Despite this, there is a significant amount of future capacity in the development pipeline, with approximately 4 GW of capacity under construction as of May 2024.[28] Additionally, a number of states have set offshore energy procurement mandates totaling approximately 45 GW by 2040.[29] In the United States, the federal Department of the Interior, through the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (“BOEM“) is responsible for seabed licensing in the Outer Continental Shelf (“OCS“),[30] which is conducted through a series of timed auction rounds.[31]
The process has historically included the following steps:
- Planning and analysis: BOEM (i) publishes a call for information, (ii) identifies priority Wind Energy Areas (“WEAs“), (iii) processes unsolicited applications for lease, and (iv) may prepare an environmental assessment for lease issuance and site assessment activities. Stakeholder engagement and consultation occurs at this stage.
- Leasing: BOEM determines if there is competitive interest. If competitive interest exists, a notice of intent to lease through a lease sale is sent to the public and developers. If BOEM determines competitive interest does not exist, they can move directly to negotiating a lease with a proponent. Like the UK Agreement for Lease, a lease does not grant the right to commence construction right away but rather makes the applicable site available for further study. A bidder’s initial eligibility is determined by their bid deposit.[32]
- Site Assessment: The proponent lessee conducts site characterization studies and submits a Site Assessment Plan (“SAP“). BOEM reviews and approves or disapproves the SAP. Once approved, the lessee conducts its site assessment.
- Construction and Operations: The lessee submits a Construction and Operations Plan (“COP“). Upon receipt, BOEM completes an environmental and technical review of the COP and decides whether to approve or disapprove the COP. If approved, the proponent lessee can proceed to build the offshore wind project.[33]
A February 2022 offshore wind auction for the New York Bight area resulted in winning bids from six proponents totaling $4.37 billion.[34] On August 14, 2024, a BOEM wind energy lease sale in the Central Atlantic region resulted in two provisional winners being named with total bids of $92.65 million. An October 2024 wind energy lease sale in the Gulf of Maine resulted in two provisional winners being named, with total bids of $21.9 million in respect of lease areas for floating turbine technology.[35] Some commentators have remarked on a perceived low level of interest in the leasing rounds, with only four of eight leases being issued to two of the fourteen companies initially qualified to bid on the sale.[36] There have been challenges in offshore wind development in the United States from a perceived lack of bidding interest, likely due to cost and market uncertainty. In 2024, BOEM cancelled a proposed sale for offshore wind leases in both the Gulf of Mexico and Oregon after receiving minimal interest from potential bidders.[37]
Additionally, it should be noted that all further offshore wind leasing in the OCS has been temporarily halted and all BOEM designated wind energy areas have been rescinded following the issuance of a memorandum by President Trump on January 20, 2025.[38]
The US is not alone in witnessing failed offshore wind leasing rounds due to lack of interest. For example, in May 2025, the Netherlands postponed tenders for a 2 GW project due to lack of interest following rising costs and lack of subsidies, while Denmark cancelled a tendering process in 2024 after not receiving any bids.[39] Additionally, the United Kingdom has not been immune to these challenges, cancelling an auction in 2023 due to lack of bids.[40]
In Nova Scotia, both levels of government are pursing aggressive offshore development goals. Projecting costs and profitability of offshore wind projects is complex and multifaceted. It is particularly challenging for jurisdictions with emerging sectors and supply chains. It is critical that Canadian policy makers tailor licence conditions, incentives, and subsidies, as well as energy offtake procedures, in light of these challenges.
The RA Report highlights a number of overarching challenges that will need to addressed as part of Nova Scotia’s rollout of offshore wind, including:
- uncertainty regarding offtake, grid integration and pathways to market needed for power purchase agreements and project financing;
- the need to address gaps and/or build domestic supply chains and labour markets; and
- the need for significant investments in ports.[41]
Like any new industry there will be headwinds to its successful development, but the potential benefits and opportunities are undeniable.
Capital Requirements, Subsidies, and Incentives
The initial capital costs required for offshore wind projects are substantial, often including bid deposits, option fees, annual rent, and operating fees, representing significant upfront financial obligations for successful bidders. This will be no different here in Nova Scotia. The RA Report notes that:
The OSW [offshore wind] industry is a capital-intensive undertaking at a large scale, with the cost of installing 1 GW of power in mature OSW [offshore wind] jurisdictions estimated in the range of $3 to $4 billion USD.[42]
Mature offshore wind markets have also seen examples of rising costs for successful proponents arising from significant market competition in the bidding process. For Nova Scotia, proponents will be looking at the terms of the offshore seabed licences alongside the full suite of subsidies and incentives available to determine the viability of offshore wind and the scale of competition for the first offered seabed licences.
Proponents will not be the only parties that may make substantial investments. As highlighted by the RA Report, Nova Scotia will need to see significant investments for developing its ports and domestic supply chain to support offshore wind. Nova Scotia is home to many ports with the potential to support the offshore wind industry, including ports in Halifax, Digby, Liverpool, Sheet Harbour, Shelburne, the Strait of Canso, and Sydney. [43]
With challenging and uncertain market conditions, subsidies and incentives will likely be critical to successfully developing a Nova Scotia offshore wind industry. Most European jurisdictions initially offered subsidies to encourage offshore wind development such as feed-in tariffs, tax benefits, innovation credits, but as markets have matured, particularly in the Netherlands and Germany, certain European nations have shifted away from the subsidy model given more substantial market interest in the bidding process.[44] As discussed above, subsidy-free models in Europe now appear to be causing challenges, contributing to a lack of interest in light of market uncertainty and rising costs.
Support for the growth of offshore wind in the United States has been supported by a number of tax credits, such as those introduced by the Inflation Reduction Act, which includes credits relating to manufacturing, location, electricity production and capital investments.[45]
Incentives and support will likely play an increasing role in Nova Scotia’s ability to successfully develop and scale its nascent offshore wind industry. The role of industry support, incentives and subsidies will be critical at the early stages of offshore wind development. A 2025 Scottish case study which was included in a report submitted to the Regional Assessment Committee noted that:
Strong government support and subsidies in the early stages of developing the offshore wind industry in Scotland supported rapid growth.[46]
While additional incentives and support are likely to be introduced for wind in Nova Scotia, there are currently a number of existing tax credits that have been introduced which are expected to be applicable. In April 2023, Canada introduced a suite of investment tax credits aimed at accelerating the transition to clean energy. Most notably, a 15% refundable Clean Electricity Investment Tax Credit is available for eligible investments in technologies that generate or store clean electricity, including wind energy. A 30% Clean Manufacturing Investment Tax Credit was also introduced to support the purchase of new machinery and equipment used in the manufacturing or processing of renewable energy technologies such as offshore wind turbines.[47]
In Nova Scotia, now more than ever, it is critical for prospective offshore wind developers and their partners to be aware of the impacts of a rapidly changing regulatory landscape. Stewart McKelvey has networks and partners across the Atlantic region and is an active member of the Canadian Renewable Energy Association (CanREA). We understand the regulatory landscape and the potential for regional economic growth in the renewable energy sector. Our dedicated Energy Practice Group is ready to assist in navigating and adapting to evolving regulatory schemes in the energy sector.
This client update is provided for general information only and does not constitute legal advice. If you have any questions about the above, please contact a member of our Energy Group.
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[1] Committee for the Regional Assessment of Offshore Wind Development in Nova Scotia, Regional Assessment of Offshore Wind Development in Nova Scotia Draft Report, (Nova Scotia: Impact Assessment Agency of Canada, 2024) at 88 [RA Report].
[2] Department of Natural Resources and Renewables, News Release, “Province Sets Offshore Wind Target” (20 September 2022), online: <novascotia.ca/news/release/?id=20220920003>.
[3] Nova Scotia, Department of Natural Resources and Renewables, Nova Scotia Offshore Wind Roadmap, Module 1 (Halifax: DNRR, May 2023); Nova Scotia, Department of Natural Resources and Renewables, Nova Scotia Offshore Wind Roadmap, Module 2 (Halifax: DNRR, June 2024); Nova Scotia, Department of Natural Resources and Renewables, Nova Scotia Offshore Wind Roadmap, Module 3 (Halifax: DNRR, July 2025).
[4] Bill 471, Advancing Nova Scotia Opportunities Act, 1st Sess, 64th Leg, Nova Scotia, 2024 (assented to 20 September 2024); Bill C-49, An Act to amend the Canada–Newfoundland and Labrador Atlantic Accord Implementation Act and the Canada-Nova Scotia Offshore Petroleum Resources Accord Implementation Act and to make consequential amendments to other Acts, 1st Sess, 44th Parl, 2024, (as passed by the House of Commons 29 May 2024).
[5] Impact Assessment Act, SC 2019, c. 28; RA Report, supra note 1.
[6] Canada Offshore Renewable Energy Regulations, SOR/2024-272.
[7] Supra note 1 at 25.
[8] The Canadian Press, “Nova Scotia, Ottawa announce four designated areas for offshore wind projects”, (29 July 2025), online: <thecanadianpressnews.ca/atlantic/nova-scotia-ottawa-announce-four-designated-areas-for-offshore-wind-projects/article_3bc9e52c-9495-514e-8e70-43bfe1b11d5d.html>.
[9] Ibid; Department of Natural Resources and Renewables, News Release, “Canada’s First Offshore Wind Energy Areas Designated” (29 July 2025), online: <news.novascotia.ca/en/2025/07/29/canadas-first-offshore-wind-energy-areas-designated>.
[10] Canada-Nova Scotia Offshore Petroleum Resources Accord Implementation and Offshore Renewable Energy Management (Nova Scotia) Act, SNS 1987, c 3 [Nova Scotia Accord Act]; Canada–Nova Scotia Offshore Petroleum Resources Accord Implementation and Offshore Renewable Energy Management Act, SC 1988, c 28 [Federal Accord Act].
[11] For offshore renewable energy projects, such as wind, “Crown reserve lands” means portions of the offshore area in which no submerged land licence is in force for a particular renewable energy resource.
[12] Nova Scotia Accord Act, supra note 10 at s 94(3).
[13] Ibid at s 98.6.
[14] Ibid at 91(4).
[15] Ibid at ss 96(1) and 97(1)
[16] Federal Accord Act, s 92.
[17] Ibid at s 93(3).
[18] Ibid at ss 38.1(3) -38 (3).
[19] Joint Directive- Canada-Nova Scotia Offshore Renewable Energy, (6 March, 2025), <cdn.cnsoer.ca/sites/default/files/2025-03/Joint%20Directive%20-%20CNSOER%20-%20March%2017%202025.pdf>.
[20] Ibid; Federal Accord Act, supra note 7 at s 142.011.
[21] Supra note 6 at s 12.
[22] UK Government, “Sectors: Offshore Wind” (2025), online: <https://www.business.gov.uk/invest-in-uk/investment/sectors/offshore-wind/>.
[23] Ibid.
[24] The Crown Estate, “Marine Registration for Offshore Licensing”, online: <thecrownestate.co.uk/our-business/marine/registration-for-offshore-licensing>.
[25] The Crown Estate, “Information Memorandum: Introducing Offshore Wind Leasing Round 4” (September 2019), online: < thecrownestate.co.uk/media/3321/tce-r4-information-memorandum.pdf>.
[26] Susanna Twidale, “Britain’s Crown Estate Post Record Profits on Offshore Wind Licenses” (24 July 2024), online: <reuters.com/world/uk/britains-crown-estate-post-record-profits-offshore-wind-licenses-2024-07-24/>.
[27] Reuters, “US Offshore Wind Farms in Service, in Construction and Under Development’ , (January 24, 2025), online: <https://www.reuters.com/sustainability/climate-energy/us-offshore-wind-farms-service-construction-under-development-2025-01-24/>.
[28] McCoy, Angel, Walter Musial, Rob Hammond, Daniel Mulas Hernando, Patrick Duffy, Philipp Beiter, Paula Pérez, Ruth Baranowski, Gage Reber, and Paul Spitsen. Offshore Wind Market Report: 2024 Edition (August 2024) Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/TP-5000-90525, online: <https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy24osti/90525.pdf.>.
[29] Ibid.
[30] US, Department of the Interior’s Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) and the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, BOEM / FERC Guidelines on Regulation of Marine and Hydrokinetic Energy Projects on the OCS (Washington, DC, 2012).
[31] US, Department of the Interior’s Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Offshore Renewable Activities, online: <boem.gov/renewable-energy/offshore-renewable-activities>.
[32] For a detailed discussion of the procedures applicable to the various round of bidding, please see: <boem.gov/sites/default/files/documents/renewable-energy/state-activities/Auction%20Procedures%20for%20the%20Upcoming%202024%20Offshore%20Wind%20Lease%20Sales.pdf>.
[33] US, Department of the Interior’s Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Wind Energy Commercial Leasing Process, online: <boem.gov/sites/default/files/documents/about-boem/Wind-Energy-Comm-Leasing-Process-FS-01242017Text-052121Branding.pdf>.
[34]US, Department of the Interior’s Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, “New York Bight” (2025), online: < https://www.boem.gov/renewable-energy/state-activities/new-york-bight>.
[35] US, Department of the Interior’s Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, “Gulf of Maine” (2025), online: < https://www.boem.gov/renewable-energy/state-activities/maine/gulf-maine >.
[36] Reuters, “US Gulf of Maine offshore wind auction attracts scant interest” (October 9, 2024), online: <https://www.reuters.com/world/us/us-gulf-maine-offshore-wind-auction-poses-test-beleaguered-industry-2024-10-29/>.
[37] US, Department of the Interior’s Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, “Gulf of America Wind Auction 2” (2025), online: <https://www.boem.gov/renewable-energy/state-activities/gulf-america-wind-auction-2>; US, Department of the Interior’s Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, “BOEM Postpones Oregon Offshore Wind Energy Auction” (September 27, 2024), online: <https://www.boem.gov/newsroom/press-releases/boem-postpones-oregon-offshore-wind-energy-auction>.
[38] US, Department of the Interior’s Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Renewable Energy Lease and Grant Information, online: <boem.gov/renewable-energy/lease-and-grant-information>; US, The White House, Temporary Withdrawal of All Areas on the Outer Continental Shelf from Offshore Wind Leasing and Review of the Federal Government’s Leasing and Permitting Practices for Wind Projects (Washington, DC, 2025).
[39] Reuters, “Dutch postpone offshore wind farm tenders due to low interest” (May 16, 2025), online: <https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/dutch-postpone-offshore-wind-farm-tenders-due-low-interest-2025-05-16/>; Reuters, “Denmark disappointed after offshore wind tender draws no bids”, (December 5, 2024), online: <https://www.reuters.com/sustainability/climate-energy/denmark-disappointed-after-offshore-wind-tender-draws-no-bids-2024-12-05/>.
[40] Reuters, “UK mulls revamp of offshore wind pricing after failed auction” (October 13, 2023), online: <https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/uk-mulls-revamp-offshore-wind-pricing-after-failed-auction-2023-10-13/ >.
[41] RA Report, Supra note 1, at 332-333.
[42] Supra note 1 at 90.
[43] Supra note 1 at 178.
[44] ELS Analysis, Tendering Procedures for Offshore Wind: A Comparative Analysis (Stockholm: ELS Analysis, 2024); Netherlands Enterprise Agency, “Dutch Offshore Wind Guide” (2022), online: <rvo.nl/sites/default/files/2021/10/Dutch%20Offshore%20Wind%20Guide%202022.pdf>; Centre for Strategic & International Studies, “Germany’s Offshore Wind Industrial Energy” (2 December 2021), online: < csis.org/analysis/germanys-offshore-wind-industrial-strategy>; Government of the Netherlands, “Offshore Wind:The Netherlands well on schedule, tender round to double capacity will start early 2024” (20 December 2024), online: <government.nl/topics/renewable-energy/news/2023/12/19/offshore-wind-the-netherlands-well-on-schedule-tender-round-to-double-capacity-will-start-early-2024>.
[45] US, Department of Energy, Advancing the Growth of the U.S. Wind Industry: Federal Incentives, Funding, and Partnership Opportunities (Washington, DC, 2023)
[46] Committee for the Regional Assessment of Offshore Wind Development in Nova Scotia, Initial Socio-Economic Impact Analysis of Offshore Wind Development in Nova Scotia (Nova Scotia: Committee for the Regional Assessment of Offshore Wind Development in Nova Scotia, 2025
[47] Canada, Natural Resources Canada, Offshore Wind Forward Planning, (Newfoundland and Labrador Offshore Wind Regional Assessment Committee Presentation) (Ottawa, Natural Resources Canada, 12 October 2023).